Personal Protection Chapter Title Basic Survival Medicine Plants for Medicine Proper Body Temperature Clothing Shelters CHAPTER 2-1 Basic Survival Medicine Medical Encounters
injuries and illnesses. Because there is no“typical” survival situation, the approach to
self-aid must be flexible, placing emphasis on
can compromise a survivor’s ability to return
using what is available to treat the injury or
are medical problems encountered. The most
illness. Further, survivors recognize that
frequent injuries are fractures, strains,
medical treatment offered by people of other
sprains, and dislocations, as well as burns and
cultures may be far different from our own.
other types of wounds (fig. 2-1). Manysurvivors have difficulty in treating injuries
For example, in the rural areas of Vietnam, a
and illness due to the lack of training and
used to treat internal lower back pain. Such
Injuries and illnesses unusual to certain
treatment may be displeasing to some people;
environments can reduce survival expectancy.
however, medical aid offered to survivors in
In cold climates, and often in an open sea
other cultures may be the best available in the
survival situation, exposure to extreme cold
can produce serious tissue trauma, such as
frostbite, or death from hypothermia.
Exposure to heat in warm climates, and in
situation. The results of treatment may be
certain areas on the open seas, can produce
substandard compared with present medical
standards. However, these procedures will
which becomes available following rescue.
personnel generally knew how to administer
available treatment to extend the individual's
inability to administer self-aid. Further, onlythe most basic medical care had been taught
Procedures
injuries or ailments, when ignored, becamemajor problems in a survival situation. Thus,
prompt attention to the most minor medical
preservation of health and the prevention,
problem is essential in a survival episode.
improvement, or treatment of injuries and
illnesses encountered during survival.
should enable survivors to maintain health
• Suitable for application by nonmedical
and well-being in a hostile or nonhostile
Survival medicine is more than first aid in
Prisoners of War in captivity and techniques
the conventional sense. It approaches final
treatment in that it is not dependent upon the
availability of technical medical assistance
Health Requirements
The principal means of infecting food and
open wounds is contact with unclean hands. Personal Hygiene
Hands should be washed with soap and water,if available, after handling any material which
is likely to carry germs. This is especially
important after each visit to the toilet, when
personal cleanliness will not only protect
caring for the sick and injured, and before
against disease germs that are present in the
handling food, food utensils, or drinking
individual’s surroundings, but will also
water. The fingers should be kept out of the
protect the group by reducing the spread of
and feet, reduces the chances of infection
from small scratches and abrasions. A dailybath or shower with hot water and soap is
Care of the Mouth and Teeth
ideal. If no tub or shower is available, thebody should be cleaned with a cloth and
Application of the following fundamentals
soapy water, paying particular attention to the
of oral hygiene will prevent tooth decay and
body creases (armpits, groin, etc.), face, ears,
hands, and feet. After this type of “bath,” the
body should be rinsed thoroughly with clear
thoroughly with a toothbrush at least once
each day. When a toothbrush is not available,
a “chewing stick” can be fashioned from a
Soap, although an aid, is not essential to
keeping clean. Ashes, sand, fertile soil, and
one end until it is frayed and brush like. The
other expedients may be used to clean the
teeth can then be brushed very thoroughly
with the stick, taking care to clean all tooth
surfaces. If necessary, a clean strip of cloth
survivor should take an “air bath.” All
can be wrapped around the finger and rubbed
sunshine is ideal, but even on an overcast day
toothpaste is not available you can brush you
or indoors, a 1-hour exposure of the naked
teeth with small amounts of sand, salt, soap,
body to the air will refresh the body. Care
or baking soda. Then rinse your mouth with
water, salt water, or willow bark tea. Also,
flossing you teeth with string or fiber helps
shade, shelter, sleeping bag, etc., will help if
the weather conditions do not permit direct
Hair should be kept trimmed, preferably 2
inches or less in length, and the face should
toothpicks can be fashioned from small twigs.
be clean-shaven. Hair provides a surface for
the attachment of parasites and the growth of
rubbing them vigorously with a clean finger
bacteria. Keeping the hair short and the face
clean-shaven will provide less habitat for
these organisms. At least once a week, the
other dental appliances, removable or fixed,
hair should be washed with soap and water.
as when cleaning natural teeth. Dentures and
When water is in short supply, the hair should
cleaned with a toothbrush or “chew stick” at
least once each day. The tissue under the
inspected weekly for fleas, lice, and other
parasites. When parasites are discovered, they
regularly for proper stimulation. Removable
dental appliances should be removed at nightor for a 2- to 3-hour period during the day.
infection. Apply a padding material around
temporary fillings by placing candle wax,
the blister to relieve pressure and reduce
tobacco, aspirin, hot pepper, toothpaste or
friction. If the blister bursts, treat it as an
powder, or portions of ginger root into the
open wound. Clean and dress it daily and pad
cavity. Make sure you clean the cavity before
around it. Leave large blisters intact. To avoid
having the blister burst or tear under pressureand cause a painful and open sore, do the
Care of the Feet
• Obtain a sewing-type needle and a clean
important in a survival situation, especially if
the survivor has to travel. Serious foot trouble
• Run the needle and thread through the
can be prevented by observing the following
• Detach the needle and leave both ends
of the thread hanging out of the blister.
thoroughly, and massaged each day. If water
The thread will absorb the liquid inside.
is in short supply, the feet should be “air
cleaned” along with the rest of the body (fig.
ensures that the hole does not close up.
2-3). Toenails should be trimmed straight
across to prevent the development of ingrowntoenails. Clothing and Bedding
them on any mission. They should fit
properly, neither so tight that they bind and
germs which may be present on the skin, in
cause pressure spots nor so loose that they
the stool, in the urine, or in secretions of the
permit the foot to slide forward and backward
nose and throat. Therefore, keeping clothing
when walking. Insoles should be improvised
to reduce any friction spots inside the shoes.
decrease the chances of skin infection and
Socks should be large enough to allow the
toes to move freely but not so loose that they
infestation. Outer clothing should be washed
wrinkle. Wool socks should be at least one
with soap and water when it becomes soiled.
size larger than cotton socks to allow for
Under clothing and socks should be changed
daily. If water is in short supply, clothing
properly repaired before they are worn.
should be “air cleaned.” For air cleaning, the
Wearing sock with holes or socks that are
clothing is shaken out of doors, then aired
poorly repaired may cause blisters. Clots of
and sunned for 2 hours. Clothing cleaned in
this manner should be worn in rotation.
Sleeping bags should be turned inside out,
cause blisters. Socks should be changed and
fluffed, and aired after each use. Bed linen
washed thoroughly with soap and water each
should be changed at least once a week, and
day. Woolen socks should be washed in cool
the blankets, pillows, and mattresses should
water to lessen shrinkage. In camp, freshly
laundered socks should be stretched tofacilitate drying by hanging in the Sun or in
an air current. While traveling, a damp pair ofsocks can be dried by placing them inside
layers of clothing or hanging them on the
because it not only restores physical and
outside of the pack. If socks become damp,
they should be exchanged for dry ones at the
during an illness or after an injury.
episode, rest is particularly important. After
examined regularly to see if there are any red
those tasks requiring immediate attention are
spots or blisters. If you get a small blister, do
done, the survivor should inventory available
not open it. An intact blister is safe from
resources, decide upon a plan of action, and
even have a meal. This “planning session”
will provide a rest period without the survivor
head net, improvised bed nets, and insect
If possible, regular rest periods should be
• Wet clothing should be exchanged for dry
planned in each day’s activities. The amount
of time allotted for rest will depend on a
number of factors, including the survivor's
• Personal items such as canteens, pipes,
physical condition, the presence of hostile
forces, etc., but usually, 10 minutes each hour
is sufficient. During these rest periods, the
survivor should change either from physical
• All food scraps, cans, and garbage should
activity to physical activity as the case may
• If possible, a survivor should get 7 or 8
comfortable and to rest under less than ideal
Rules for Avoiding Illness Medical Emergencies
In a survival situation, whether short-term
problems, severe bleeding, and shock.
regarding personal hygiene will enable thesurvivor to safeguard personal health and the
Breathing Problems
Any one of the following can cause airway
difficulty, resulting in stopped breathing:
should be purified before consumption.
• The ground in the camp area should not
• Foreign matter in mouth of throat that
toilets are available, individuals should
• Inflammation and swelling of mouth and
dig “cat holes” and cover their waste.
Fingers and other infected objects should
• “Kink” in the throat (caused by the neck
fingers in the care of the mouth and teeth,
the chest) may block the passage of air.
• Tongue blocks passage of air to the lungs
individual is unconscious, the muscles of
After each meal, all eating utensils should
thoroughly at least once each day. Mostdental problems associated with long-
Severe Bleeding
term survival episodes can be preventedby using a toothbrush and toothpaste to
remove food debris. If necessary, devices
vessel in the body is extremely dangerous.
The loss of 1 liter of blood will produce
moderate symptoms of shock. The loss of 2
liters will produce a severe state of shock that
places the body in extreme danger. The loss
Tourniquet:A device used in controlling bleeding, consisting of a wide constricting band applied to the Control Bleeding limb near to the site of bleeding; and between it and the heart.
In a survival situation, you must control
replacement fluids normally are not available
and the victim can die within a matter of
the flow of blood, regardless of its source.
• Capillary. The capillaries are the
The method used should be comparable with
arteries with the veins. Capillary bleeding
tourniquet, when required and properly used,
will save life. If improperly used, it may cost
characteristics of a tourniquet and themethods of its use are well covered in
standard first aid texts; however, certain
direct pressure, indirect (pressure points)
pressure, elevation, digital ligation, or
situation. A tourniquet should be used only
after every alternate method has beenattempted. If unable to get to medical aid
Direct Pressure.The most effective way
within 2 hours, after 20 minutes, gradually
to control external bleeding is by applying
stopped, remove the tourniquet; if bleeding
pressure must not only be firm enough to stop
continues, reapply and leave in place. The
the bleeding, but it must also be maintained
tourniquet should be applied as near the site
long enough to “seal off” the damaged
wound and the heart, to reduce the amount of
If bleeding continues after having applied
direct pressure for 30 minutes, apply apressure dressing. This dressing consists of a
External Bleeding
thick dressing of gauze or to the suitablematerial applied directly over the wound and
External bleeding falls into the following
held in place with a tightly wrapped bandage
classifications (according to its source):
(fig. 2-5). It should be tighter than an ordinarycompression bandage but not so tight that it
• Arterial. Blood vessels called arteries
impairs circulation to the rest of the limb.
Once you apply the dressing, do not removeit, even when the dressing becomes blood
bright red blood from the wound in
distinct spurts or pulses that correspond
Leave the pressure dressing in place for 1
or 2 days, after which you can remove and
occurs. Therefore, arterial bleeding is themost serious type of bleeding. If not
Elevation. Raising an injured limb (arm or
controlled promptly, it can be fatal.
leg) as high as possible above the heart’s
• Venous. Venous blood is blood that is
level slows blood loss by aiding the return of
blood to the heart and lowering the blood
vessels called veins. A s t e a d y f l o w o f
pressure at the wound. However, elevation
dark red, maroon, or bluish b l o o d
alone will not control bleeding entirely; you
Gangrene: Death of tissue, usually the result of
wound. When treating a snakebite, however,
loss of blood supply, and bacterial invasion. Pressure Points. A pressure point is a
location where the main artery to the wound
lies near the surface of the skin (fig. 2-6).
around the limb, between the wound and the
You can use digital pressure on a pressure
heart, 5 to 10 centimeters above the wound
point to slow arterial bleeding until the
site (fig. 2-7). Never place it directly over the
application of a pressure dressing. Pressure
wound or a fracture. Use a stick as a handle
to tighten the tourniquet and tighten it only
applied on the wound. It is rare when a single
tightened the tourniquet, bind the free end of
the stick to the limb to prevent unwinding.
After you secure the tourniquet, clean and
If you cannot remember the exact location
bandage the wound. A lone survivor does not
of the pressure points, follow this rule: Apply
remove or release an applied tourniquet. In a
pressure at the end of the joint just above the
injured area. On hands, feet, and head, this
release the tourniquet pressure every 10 to 15
minutes for 1 or 2 minutes to let blood flow
to the rest of the arm or leg to prevent limbloss. Use caution when applying pressure to the neck. Too much pressure for to long may cause unconsciousness or death. Never place
disease in itself. It is a clinical condition
a tourniquets around the neck.
characterized by symptoms that arise whencardiac output is not enough to fill the arteries
with blood under enough pressure to provide
round stick in the joint, bending the joint over
an adequate blood supply to the organs and
the stick, and then keeping it tightly bent by
lashing. By using this method to maintainpressure, it frees your hands to work in other
Circulatory Reaction Digital Ligation. You can stop major
injuries to the body, and frequently it is the
most serious consequence of the injury. In
applying pressure with a finger or two on the
essence, shock is a circulatory reaction of the
bleeding end of the vein or artery. Maintain
body (as a whole) to an injury (mechanical or
the pressure until the bleeding stops or slows
resistance to the injury (by ensuring adequateblood supply to vital structures), they may
Tourniquet. Use a tourniquet only when
progress to the point of circulatory failure and
direct pressure over the bleeding point and all
death. Students should be familiar with the
other methods did not control the bleeding. If
you leave a tourniquet in place too long, the
condition may be anticipated, recognized, and
dealt with effectively. However, the best
gangrene, with a loss of the limb later. An
survival approach is to treat all moderate and
improperly applied tourniquet can also cause
severe injuries for shock. No harm will be
permanent damage to nerves and other tissues
done, and such treatment will speed recovery.
• If the victim is unconscious, place him on
Fluids. Normally, fluids administered by
treatment of shock following severe injury.
Such fluids are poorly absorbed when given
• If you are unsure of the best position,
by mouth, and they may interfere with later
place the victim perfectly flat. Once the
administration of anesthesia for surgery. In
victim is in a shock position, do not move
survival medicine, however, the situation is
different in that the treatment being given is
denied of water for long periods just because
some instances, applying external heat.
they have been injured; in fact, their recovery
• If wet, remove all the victim’s wet
coffee given frequently early in shock are
• Improvise a shelter to insulate the victim
swallow and has no internal injuries. In later
• Use warm liquids or foods, a prewarmed
shock, fluids by mouth are less effective as
they are not absorbed from the intestines.
Burns, particularly, require large amounts of
clothing, or fires on either of the victim to
water to replace fluid lost from injured areas.
Alcohol should never be given to a person in
administer small doses of a warm salt orsugar solution, if available. Psychogenic Shock. Psychogenic shock is
• Have the victim rest for at least 24 hours.
without injury, requires attention to limit it,
• If you are a lone survivor, lie in a hole in
both in degree and duration. The degree of
this post-impact shock varies widely among
universal. It is not uncommon, then, that
some psychogenic reaction with circulatory
implications occurs. Resistance to this type ofshock depends upon the individual’spersonality and the amount of training
previously received. Treatment consists ofstopping all activities (when possible),
Control of Pain. The control of pain alone
situations is both difficult and essential. In
addition to its morale-breaking discomfort,pain contributes to shock and makes the
Prevent and Treat Shock
survivor more vulnerable. Ideally, painshould be eliminated by the removal of the
Anticipate shock in all injured personnel.
immediately possible, hence measures for the
Position, Heat, and Cold. The part of the
If the victim is conscious, place him on a
body that is hurting should be put at rest, or at
possible. The position selected should be the
Immobilization: To reduce or eliminate motion
easiest to maintain. Splints and bandages may
of the body or a part by mechanical means or by
be necessary to maintain the immobilization. strick bed rest.
Elevation of the injured part, withimmobilization, is particularly beneficial in
Grating: A sound or feeling that occurs when
the throbbing type pain like the “mashed”
broken bone ends rub together.
finger. Open wounds should be cleansed,foreign bodies removed, and a clean dressingapplied to protect the wound from the air and
fairly high degree of mobility. Materials for
chance contacts with environmental objects.
splinting and bandaging are available in most
Generally, the applying warmth reduces pain,
survival situations, and proper techniques are
for example a toothache. However, in some
conditions, applying cold has the same effect,for example strains and sprains. Warmth or
Fractures
cold is best applied by using water due to itshigh specific heat, and the survivor can try
both to determine which is most beneficial.
fractures: open and closed. With an open (orcompound) fracture, the bone protrudes
Pain Killers, Aspirin, APCs, and such
through the skin and complicates the actual
tablets are primarily intended to combat the
fracture with an open wound. After setting
discomforts of colds and upper respiratory
the fracture, treat the wound as any other
diseases, and, at best, will just take the
edge off severe pain. They should be taken,
The closed fracture has no open wounds.
Follow the guidelines for immobilization, and
available, there are some parts of vegetation
which can be used. For example, most of the
pain, tenderness, discoloration, swelling
relieving and fever-lowering benefits for
deformity, loss of function, and grating. The
hundreds of years. Wintergreen, also known
reduction of fractures is normally beyond the
as checkerberry, was used by some Indians
scope of first aid; however, in the prolonged
survival situation, the correction of bone
deformities is necessary to hasten healing and
magnolia tree helps relieve internal pains and
obtain the greatest functional result. The best
fever, and has been known to stop dysentery.
time for manipulation of a fracture is in theperiod immediately following the injury,before painful muscle spasms ensue. Traction
Bone and Joint Injury
is applied until overriding fragments of boneare brought into line, (check by the other
limb) and the limb is firmly immobilized.
that include fractures, dislocations, and
Frequently, it is advantageous to continue
sprains. Proper immobilization of fractures,
traction after reduction to ensure the proper
conventional first aid. Rather than merely
severing or the compression of a nerve or
blood vessel at the site of fracture. For this
transport to eventual treatment, in survival
medicine, the initial immobilization is part of
done, and only very cautiously. If you notice
the ultimate treatment. Immobilization in
proper position hastens healing of fractures
swollen, cool to the touch, or turning pale,
and improves the ultimate functional result.
and the victim shows signs of shock, a major
In the survival situation, the immobilization
must suffice for a relatively long period of
control this internal bleeding. Treat the victim
time and permit the patient to maintain a
Femur: The thigh bone, which extends from the
the splinting and healing process. You can
pelvis to the knee.
effectively pull smaller bones such as the armor lower leg by hand. You can create tractionby wedging a hand or foot in the V-notch of atree and pushing against the tree with theother limb. You can then splint the break. Dislocations
bone (femur) in place making it difficult to
maintain traction during healing. You can
joints causing the bones to go out of proper
alignment. These misalignments can be very
painful and can cause an impairment of nerveor circulatory function below the area
affected. You must place these joints back
into alignment as quickly as possible.
joint pain, tenderness, swelling, discoloration,
Measure the other from the groin to 20 to
limited range of motion, and deformity of the
30 centimeters pass the unbroken leg.
joint. You treat dislocations by reduction,
Ensure that both extend an equal distance
Reduction or “setting” is placing the bones
back into their proper alignment. Reduction
of dislocated joints is done similar to that of
fractures. Gentle, but firm, traction is applied
and the limb is manipulated until it “snaps”
back into place. The use of weights to pull the
• Using available material (vines, cloth
survivor is alone, the problem is difficult but
rawhide), tie the splint around the upper
not impossible. Traction can still be applied
by using gravity. The limb is tied to the fork
of a tree. The weight of the body is then
allowed to provide the necessary traction,
• With available material, fashion a wrap
that will extend around the ankle, with the
reduction decreases the victim’s pain and
two free ends tied to the cross member.
allows for normal function and circulation.
• Place a 10- by 2.5-centimeter stick in the
alignment by the look and feel of the joint
middle of the free ends of the ankle wrap
between the cross member and the foot.
Using the stick, twist the material to make
splinting the dislocation after reduction. You
can use any material for a splint or you can
• Continue twisting until the broken leg is
• Splint above and below the fracture site.
• Lash the stick to maintain traction.
• Pad splints to reduce discomfort.
• Check circulation below the fracture after
Note: Over time you may lose traction because the material weakened. Check thetraction periodically. If you must change or
To rehabilitate the dislocation, remove the
repair the splint, maintain the traction
splints after 7 to 14 days. Gradually use the
placing it in a covered container and boiling itfor 10 minutes. Above 3,000 feet, water
The accidental overstretching of a tendon
should be boiled for 1 hour (in a covered
or ligament causes sprains. The signs and
container) to ensure adequate sterilization.
symptoms are pain, swelling, tenderness, and
stored indefinitely as long as it is covered.
Rinse the wounds rather than scrubbing to
minimize additional damage to the tissue. Strange material should be washed from the
I - Ice for 24 hours, then heat after that.
infection. The skin next to the wounds should
C - Compression-wrapping and/or splinting
be washed thoroughly before bandaging.
to help stabilize. If possible, leave the
wounds, a bar of medicated soap placed in a
would do much to prevent the infection ofother injuries. External antiseptics are bestused for cleaning abrasions, scratches, andthe skin areas next to lacerations. Used in
deep, larger wounds, antiseptics producefurther tissue damage.
Any physical injury causing a break in the
Nature also provides antiseptics which can
wounds, skin diseases, frostbite, trench foot,
and burns. A delay in treatment could cause
south to North Carolina and its inner bark has
antiseptic forms. The red berries containascorbic acid and have been eaten to cure
Infection
scurvy. The Sweet Gum bark is still officiallyrecognized as being an antiseptic agent.
Infection is a serious threat to the survivor.
Delay in medical treatment of the survival
also be used as antiseptic for wounds.
situation increases the chances of woundinfection. Antibiotics may not be available in
Antibiotics
sufficient amounts in the survival situation. Insurvival medicine, one must place more
emphasis on the prevention and control of
taken for the control of infection. Consensus
infection by applying techniques used before
is that the drug should be of the so-called
“broad spectrum type;” that is, be effective
Unfortunately, survivors have little control
specific for just 1 or 2 types. The exact
introduced at the time of injury. However,
amount to be included in survival kits will
they can help control the infection by wearing
vary with the drug and basic assumptions as
clean clothes. Use care to prevent additional
to the number and types of infections to be
infection into wounds. Wounds, regardless of
the type or severity, should not be touched
dated items (shelf life about 4 years), and
with dirty hands or objects. One exception to
including them in survival kits requires kit
this rule is the necessary control of arterial
inspection and drug replacement with active
bleeding. Clothing should be removed from
wounds to avoid contamination surroundingskin areas. Open Wounds
All wounds should be promptly cleansed.
cleaning agent, and should be (preferably)
sterile. At sea level, sterilize water, by
damage and blood loss, but also because they
may become infected. Bacteria on the object
tissue (proud flesh). This tissue is easily
that made the wound, on the individual’s skin
and clothing, or on other foreign material or
appearance, a good sign in any wound.
dirt that touches the wound may causeinfection. Dressings and Bandages. After cleansing,
all wounds should be covered with a clean
dressing. The dressing should be sterile;
promote healing. Clean the wound as soon as
however, in the survival situation, any clean
cloth will help to protect the wound from
anchor the dressing to the wound and afford
further protection. Bandages should be snug
enough to prevent slippage, yet not too tight.
Slight pressure will reduce discomfort in
• Thoroughly cleaning the skin around the
most wounds and help stop bleeding. Once in
place, dressings should not be changed too
• Rinsing (not scrubbing) the wound with
regularly unless required. External soiling
large amounts of water under pressure.
dressing, and pain and some tissue damage
will accompany any removal. In addition,changing dressings increases the danger of
situations. Do not try to close any wound by
bring the edges together with adhesive tape
stitching or similar procedures. Leave the
cut in the form of a “butterfly” or “dumbbell”
wound open to allow the drainage of any pus
resulting from infection. In fact, it may be
avoid infection and to promote drainage.
prevent. Pain, swelling, and redness around
Adequate natural drainage of infected areas
the wound, increased temperature, and pus in
promotes healing. Generally, wicks or drains
are unnecessary. On occasion, however, it
may be better to remove excess pus and insertlight, loose packing to ensure continuous
drainage. A knife or other instrument used in
sterilized to avoid introducing other types of
organisms. The best way to sterilize in the
compress when it cools, keeping awarm compress on the wound for a total
field is with heat, dry or moist. As long as the
wound can drain, it generally will not become
life-threating, regardless of how unpleasant it
dressings should not be used. Good surgery
“closed,” nerves, bone, and blood vesselsshould be covered with tissue. A notable
Continue this treatment daily until all signs of
exception to “open treatment” is the early
closure of facial wounds which interfere withbreathing, eating, or drinking. Wounds, left
open, heal by forming an infection resistant
not heal, and ordinary debridement is Debridement: To remove dirt, strange objects,
impossible, consider maggot therapy, despite
damaged tissue, from a wound or a burn in order to prevent infection and to promote healing.
• Expose the wound to flies for one day
sterile knife, wire, needle, or similar item.
Thoroughly clean out the pus using soap and
periodically to ensure no further infection
cleaned out all dead tissue and beforethey start on healthy tissue. Increased
Fungal Infections. Keep the skin clean
and dry, and expose the infected area to as
much sunlight as possible. Do not scratch the
affected area. During the Southeast Asian
• Flush the wound repeatedly with sterile
conflict, soldiers used antifungal powders, lye
concentrated salt water, and iodine to treat
fungal infections with varying degrees of
success. As with any “unapproved” method
• Bandage the wound and treat it as any
Rashes. To treat a skin rash effectively,
determination may be difficult even in the
Lacerations:Lacerations (cuts) are best left
best of situations. Observe the following rules
open due to the probability of infection.
Clean thoroughly, remove foreign material,and apply a protective dressing. Frequently,
immobilization will hasten the healing of
major lacerations. On occasion, it may be
necessary to close (cover) the wound, despitethe danger of infection, in order to control
made from tea or from boiling acorns or the
patient. If a needle is available, thread may be
procured from parachute lines, fabric, or
rashes. Keep dry rashes moist by rubbing a
clothing, and the wound closed by stitching.
small amount of animal fat or grease on the
If stitching is required, place the stitches
individually, and far enough apart to permit
drainage of underlying parts. Do not worry
and clean and dress them daily. There are
about the way it looks. For scalp wounds, hair
many substances available to survivors in the
wild or in captivity for use as antiseptics to
cleaned. Infection is less a danger in this area
• Iodine tablets. Use 5 to 15 tablets in a
Skin Diseases and Ailments
liter of water to produce a good rinse forwounds during healing.
• Garlic. Rub it on a wound or boil it to
rashes rarely develop into a serious health
extract the oils and use the water to rinse
• Salt water. Use 2 to 3 tablespoons per
Boils. Apply warm compresses to bring
• Bee honey. Use it straight or dissolved in
the boil to a head. Then open the boil using a
• Sphagnum moss. Found in boggy areas
Amputated: The surgical removal of a part of the
worldwide, it is a natural source of iodine. body or a limb or part of a limb. Electrolyte: A substance that when dissolved in a Again, use noncommercially prepared suitable liquid or when melted becomes an ionic conductor. Frostbite
with a clean dressing of any type reduces the
This injury results from frozen tissues.
pain and chance for infection. Further, such
Light frostbite involves only the skin that
takes on a dull, whitish look. Deep frostbite
patient and the capability for performing
extends to a depth below the skin. The tissues
other vital survival functions. In burns about
the face and neck ensure the victim has an
particularly vulnerable to frostbite.
incision into the larynx should be done before
the survivor develops extreme difficulties.
using the buddy system. Check your buddy’s
Burns of the face and hands are particularly
serious in a survival situation as they interfere
yours. If you are alone, periodically cover
with the capability of survivors to meet their
your nose and lower part of your face with
own needs. Soaking certain barks (willow,
oak, maple) in water soothes and protects
burns by causing contraction of tissues when
placing them close to an open flame. Gently
applied. This is a function of the acid content
rub them in lukewarm water. Dry the part and
place it next to your skin to warm it at body
necessary to recover from burns. The onlyway to administer fluids in a survival
Trench Foot
situation is by mouth; hence the survivorshould drink plenty of water early before the
nausea and vomiting starts. Consuming the
eyes and blood (both cooked) of animals can
help restore electrolyte levels if salt tablets
freezing. The nerves and muscles sustain the
main damage, but gangrene can occur. Inextreme cases the flesh dies and it may
NOTE: The survivor may also pack salt in personal survival kits to replace electrolytesamputated. The best prevention is to keep (1/4 teaspoon per quart of water).
your feet dry. Carry extra socks with you in awaterproof packet. Dry wet socks against
your body. Wash your feet daily and put on
relieves the pain somewhat, seems to help
speed healing, and offers some protectionagainst infection:
• First, stop the burning process. Put out the
Burns, frequently encountered in aircraft
accidents and subsequent survival episodes,
water or sand, or by rolling on the ground.
pose serious problems. Burns cause severe
Cool the burned skin with ice or water.
pain, increase the probability of shock and
infection, and offer an avenue for the loss of
considerable body fluids and salts. Direct
initial treatment toward relieving pain and
• Soak dressings or clean rags for 10 inutes
in a boiling tannic acid solution (obtained
from tea, inner bark of hardwood trees, or
Erythromycin: An antibacterial antibiotic.
• Cool the dressings or clean rags and apply
Tetracycline: A broad spectrum antibiotic.
heavy oil, or tree sap, that will cut off their air
supply. Without air, the tick releases its hold,
and you can remove it. Take care to remove
the whole tick. Use tweezers if you havethem. Grasp the tick where the mouth partsare attached to the skin. Do not squeeze the
Bites and Stings
tick’s body. These parasites can also beremoved by applying heat or other irritant to
Insects and related pests are hazards in a
them to encourage a relaxation of their hold
irritations, but they are often carriers of
touching the tick. Clean the tick wound daily
diseases, and cause severe allergic reactions
in some individuals. Bites of insects, leeches,ticks, chiggers, etc., pose several hazards. Treatment
Many of these organisms transmit diseases,and the bite itself is likely to become
It is impossible to list the treatment of all
infected, especially if it itches and the
the different types of bites and stings. Treat
survivor scratches it. In many parts of the
world you will be exposed to serious, even
fatal, diseases not encountered in the United
If antibiotics are available for your use,
Ticks can carry and transmit diseases, such
as Rocky Mountain spotted fever common in
many parts of the United States. Ticks also
Mosquitoes may carry malaria, dengue,
Flies can spread disease from contact with
erythromycin.
Most tick-, flea-, louse-, and mite-borne
diseases are treatable with tetracycline. Lice can transmit typhus and relapsing
remember the exact dose rate to treat adisease, 2 tablets, 4 times a day for 10 to
The best way to avoid the complications of
14 days will usually kill any bacteria.
insect bites and stings is to keepimmunizations (including booster shots) up-
Bee and Wasp Stings
to-date, avoid insect-infested areas, usenetting and insect repellent, and wear all
If stung by a bee, immediately remove the
If you get bitten or stung, do not scratch
scraping with a fingernail or a knife blade. Do
the bite or sting, it might become infected.
not squeeze or grasp the stinger or venom
sac, as squeezing will force more venom into
ensure there are no insects attached to you. If
the wound. Wash the sting site thoroughly
you find ticks attached to your body, cover
with soap and water to lessen the chance of asecondary infection.
If you know or suspect that you are allergic
Regress: A retreat or backward movement in
to insect stings, always carry an insect sting
condition, signs or symptoms. CPR: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation, a basic
Relieve the itching and discomfort caused
emergency procedure for life support, consisting of artificial respiration and manual external cardiac massage.
• A cooling paste of mud and ashes. Necrosis: Tissue death that occurs in groups of cells in response to disease or injury. Ulcer: A crater like lesion of the skin or mucous membrane resulting from necrosis. Spider Bites and Scorpion Stings
The black widow spider is identified by a
chiefly in children or weak and tired persons.
Tarantulas are large, hairy spiders found
female bites, and it has a neurotoxic venom.
mainly in the tropics. Most do not inject
The initial pain is not severe, but severe local
venom, but some South American species do.
pain rapidly develops. The pain gradually
They have large fangs. If bitten, pain and
spreads over the entire body and settles in the
bleeding are certain, and infection is likely.
Treat a tarantula bite as for any open wound,
progressive nausea, vomiting, and a rash may
and try to prevent infection. If symptoms of
poisoning appear, treat as for the bite of the
salivation may occur. Anaphylactic reactions
can occur. Symptoms begin to regress after
Scorpions are all poisonous to a greater or
several hours and are usually gone in a few
days. Treat for shock. Be ready to perform
CPR. Clean and dress the bite area to reduce the risk of infection. An antivenin is
• Severe local reaction only, with pain and
swelling around the area of the sting.
gray spider found in Australia. The symptoms
and the treatment for its bite are as for the
• Severe systemic reaction, with little or no
visible local reaction. Local pain may be
spider is a small, light brown spider identified
respiratory difficulties, thick-feeling tongue,
by a dark brown violin on its back. There is
body spasms, drooling, gastric distention,
no pain, or so little pain, that usually a victim
double vision, blindness, involuntary rapid
is not aware of the bite. Within a few hours a
painful red area with a blotch blue center
urination and defecation, and heart failure.
appears. Necrosis does not occur in all bites,
Death is rare, occurring mainly in children
but usually in 3 to 4 days, a star-shaped, firm
area of deep purple discoloration appears at
the bite site. The area turns dark and dries upin a week or two. The margins separate and
Treat scorpion stings as you would a black
the scab falls off, leaving an open ulcer.
Secondary infection and regional swollenlymph glands usually become visible at this
Snakebites
stage. The outstanding characteristic of thebrown recluse bite is an ulcer that does not
heal but persists for weeks or months. In
situation is rather small, if you are familiar
addition to the ulcer, there is often a systemic
with the various types of snakes and their
reaction that is serious and may lead to death.
habitats. However, it could happen and you
should know how to treat a snakebite. Deaths
• Set up for shock and force fluids or give
from snakebites are rare. More than one-half
of the snakebite victims have little or no
• Remove watches, rings, bracelets, or other
poisoning, and only about one-quarter develop
chance of a snakebite in a survival situation
• Maintain an airway (especially if bitten
near the face or neck) and be prepared to
preventive measures or failure to treat a
administer mouth-to-mouth resuscitation or
snakebite properly can result in needless
• Use a constricting band between the wound
snakebite is to limit the amount of eventual
tissue destruction around the bite area.
• Remove the poison as soon as possibly
animal that inflicted it, can become infected
from bacteria in the animal’s mouth. Withnonpoisonous as well as poisonous
snakebites, this local infection is responsible
• Give the victim alcoholic beverages or
for a large part of the damage that results.
• Give morphine or other central nervous
that attack the victim’s central nervous
• Make any deep cuts at the bite site.
digestive enzymes to aid in digesting their
Cutting opens capillaries that in turn open
prey. These poisons can cause a very large
area of tissue death, leaving a large open
wound. This condition could lead to the needfor eventual amputation if not treated. Note: If medical treatment is over one hour away, make an incision (no longer than 6
snake can also affect the person’s recovery. millimeters and no deeper than 3 millimeters)
Excitement, hysteria, and panic can speed up
over each puncture, cutting just deep enough
the circulation, causing the body to absorb the
to enlarge the fang opening, but only through
toxin quickly. Signs of shock occur within the
the first or second layer of skin. Place asuction cup over the bite so that you have agood vacuum seal. Suction the bite site 3 to 4
determine whether the snake was poisonous
times. Use mouth suction only as a last resort
or nonpoisonous. Bites from a nonpoisonous
and only if you do not have open sores in
snake will show rows of teeth. Bites from a
your mouth. Spit the envenomed blood out and rinse your mouth with water. Thismethod will draw out 25 to 30 percent of the
distinctive puncture marks caused by fang
penetration. Symptoms of a poisonous bite
may be spontaneous bleeding from the nose
and anus, blood in the urine, pain at the site
eyes, as venom may be on your hands.
of the bite, and swelling at the site of the bite
• Break open the large blisters that form
within a few minutes or up to 2 hours later.
Breathing difficulty, paralysis, weakness,
twitching, and numbness are also signs of
above, take the following actions to minimize
appear 1.5 to 2 hours after the bite.
If you determine that a poisonous snake bit
• If infection appears, keep the wound open
Reassure the victim and keep him still.
• Use heat after 24 to 48 hours to help
Pleural Cavity: The cavity within the thorax that
prevent the spread of local infection. Heat
contains the lungs.
also helps to draw out an infection.
• Keep the wound covered with a dry, sterile
through death, or walling-off of the damaged
• Have the victim drink large amounts of
Chest Injuries Vital Injuries
Injuries of the chest are common, painful
and disabling. Severe bruises of the chest orfractures of the ribs require that the chest be
Head Injuries
immobilized to prevent large painfulmovements of the chest wall. The bandage is
applied while the patient deeply exhales. In
problems related to brain damage as well as
the survival situation, it may be necessary for
interfering with breathing and eating.
survivors to wrap their own chest. This is
Bleeding is more heavy flowing in the face
more difficult but can be done by attaching
material) to a tree or other fixed object,
somewhat safer to close such wounds earlier
holding the other end in the hand, and slowly
to maintain function. An emergency incision
rolling the body toward the tree, keeping
into the larynx to open the airway may be
necessary if breathing becomes difficult due
to difficulty of the upper airways. In the eventof unconsciousness, watch the patient closely
Sucking Chest Wounds
and keep him or her still. Even in the face ofmild or near shock, keep the head level or
These wounds are easily recognized by the
even slightly elevated if there is reason to
expect brain damage. Do not give fluids or
bubbles in the wound. These wounds must be
closed immediately before serious respiratoryand circulatory complications occur. Ideally,
Abdominal Wounds
the patient should attempt to exhale whileholding the mouth and nose closed as the
wound is closed. This deflates the lungs and
reduces the air trapped in the pleural cavity.
Frequently, a taped, airtight dressing is all
surgery, have an extremely high mortality rate
that is needed, but sometimes it is necessary
and render patients totally unable to care for
to put in a stitch or two to make sure the
themselves. If intestines are not coming out
through the wound, a secure bandage shouldbe applied to keep this from occurring. If
Eye Injuries
intestines are coming out, do not replace itdue to the almost certain threat of fatal
Eye injuries are quite serious in a survival
peritonitis. Cover the intestine with a large
situation due to pain and interference with
dressing and keep the dressing wet with any
other survival functions. The techniques for
fluid that is fit to drink, or urine. The patient
should lie on the back and avoid any motions
snow blindness are covered in standard first
that increase intra-abdominal pressure which
might cause more intestine to come out. Keep
involving disruption of the contents of the
the survivor in an immobile state or move on
orbit may require that the lids of the affected
a litter. “Nature” will eventually take care of
eye be taped closed or covered to prevent
Thorns and Splinters the victim’s head. Heat loss through the scalpis great. Administer IVs and provide drinkingfluids. You may fan the individual.
encountered in survival situations. Reducetheir danger by wearing gloves and proper
footgear. Their prompt removal is quiteimportant to prevent infection. Wounds made
by these agents are quite deep compared to
infection by those organisms (such as tetanus)
which grow best in the absence of oxygen.
availability of a sharp instrument (needle or
• Rebound heatstroke within 48 hours.
knife), needle nose pliers, or tweezers. Take
• Cardic arrest; be ready to perform CPR.
care to get all of the foreign body out;sometimes it is best to open the wound
Note: Treat dehydration with lightly salted
enough to properly cleanse it and to allow air
to enter the wound. When cleaned, treat asany other wound. Hypothermia
Defined as the body’s failure to maintain
Environmental Injuries
a temperature of 36ºC (97ºF). Exposure tocool or cold temperature over a short of longtime can cause hypothermia. Dehydration and
lack of food and rest condition the survivor to
intestinal parasites are environmental injuries
warm the hypothermia victim. Get the victim
Heatstroke
into dry clothing. Replace lost fluids, andwarm him. Diarrhea
than 40.5ºC [105ºF] causes a heatstroke. Other heat injuries, such as cramps or
heatstroke. Signs and symptoms of heatstroke
fatigued, and using dirty dishes. You can
preventive medicine. If you get diarrhea,
medicine, one of the following treatments
cause an unnatural paleness or absenceof color in the skin (pallor), a bluish
• Limit your intake of fluids for 24 hours.
color to lips and nail beds (cyanosis), and
• Drink one cup of a strong tea solution
every 2 hours until the diarrhea slows orstops. The tannic acid in the tea helps to
Note: By this time the victim is in severe
control the diarrhea. Boil the inner bark
shock. Cool the victim as rapidly as possible.
of a hardwood tree for 2 hours or more to
Cool him by dipping him in a cool stream. Ifone is not available, douse the victim with
• Make a solution of one handful of ground
urine, water, or at the very least, apply cool
chalk, charcoal, or dried bones and treated
wet compresses to all the joints, especiallythe neck, armpits, and crotch. Be sure to wet
• Tobacco. Eat 1 to 1.5 cigarettes. The
solution every 2 hours until the diarrhea
stun the worms long enough for yoursystem to pass them. If the infestation
Intestinal Parasites
is severe, repeat the treatment in 24to 48 hours, but no sooner.
• Kerosene. Drink 2 tablespoons of
preventive measures. For example, never go
kerosene but no more. If necessary,
barefoot. The most effective way to prevent
intestinal parasites it to avoid uncooked meat
sewage or human waste used as a fertilizer.
• Hot peppers. Peppers are effective
remedies work on the principle of changing
the environment of the gastrointestinal tract.
The following are home remedies you could
that is prohibitive to parasiticattachment.
• Salt water. Dissolve 4 tablespoons of
salt in 1 liter of water and drink. Donot repeat this treatment. CHAPTER 2-2 Plants for Medicine
In a survival situation you will have to use
Poultice: A heated, moist, or soft mass substance,
what is available. In using plants and other
as meal or clay, spread on cloth and applied to
natural remedies, positive identification of the
warm, moisten, or stimulate a sore or inflamed
plants involved is as critical as using them for
part of the body.
food. Proper use of these plants is equallyimportant. Decoction: To extract the flavor by boiling. Terms and Definitions
The following terms, and their definitions,
• Diarrhea. Drink tea made from the roots
of blackberries and their relatives to stopdiarrhea. White oak bark and other barks
• Poultice. The name given to crushed
containing tannin are also effective.
heated, that you apply to a wound or sore
possible negative effects on the kidneys.
You can also stop diarrhea by eating white
• Infusion or tisane or tea. The preparation of
application. You place a small quantity of
a herb in a container, pour hot water over
it, and let it steep (covered or uncovered)
• Antihemorrhagics. Make medications to
stop bleeding from a poultice of the
• Decoction. The extract of a boiled down
or most effectively from the leaves of the
herb leaf or root to water. You bring them
to a sustained boil or simmer to draw their
• Antiseptics. Use to cleanse wounds, sores,
ounces) of herb to 0.5 liter of water.
expressed juice or chickweed leaves or the
• Expressed juice. Liquids or saps squeezed
from plant material and either applied to
make antiseptics from a decoction of
the wound or made into another medicine.
burdock root, mallow leaves or roots, orwhite oak bark. All these medications are
the medicines you know. Therefore, start with
smaller doses and allow more time for them to
• Fevers. Treat a fever with a tea made from
take effect. Naturally, some will act more
willow bark, an infusion of elder flowers
or fruit, linden flower tea, or elm barkdecoction. Specific Remedies
• Colds and sore throats. Treat these
The following remedies are for use only in
a survival situation, not for routine use:
either plantain leaves or willow bark. Youcan also use a tea made from burdock
roots, mallow or mullein flowers or roots,
treat ringworm and athlete’s foot. Apply
• Aches, pains, and sprains. Treat with
Miscellaneous Uses of Plants
plantain, chickweed, willow bark, garlic,or sorrel. You can also use salves made by
• Make dyes from various plants to color
mixing the expressed juices of these plants
clothing or to camouflage your skin.
Usually, you will have to boil the plants to
get the best results. Onion skins produce
• Itching. Relieve the itch from insect bites,
applying a poultice of jewelweed or witch
• Make fibers and cordage from plant fibers.
help when applied to poison ivy rashes or
insect stings. It works on sunburn as well
the inner bark of trees like the linden.
• Sedatives. Get help in falling asleep by
• Make fish poison by dipping walnut hulls
makes it impossible for the fish to breathe
but doesn’t adversely affect their edibility.
• Hemorrhoids. Treat them with external
• Make tinder for starting fires from cattail
fluff, cedar bark, lighter knot wood from
pine trees, or hardened sap from resinous
• Constipation. Relieve constipation by
• Make insulation by fluffing up female
leaves, rose hips, or walnut bark. Eating
• Make insect repellents by applying the
expressed juice of wild garlic or onion to
• Worms or intestinal parasites. Using
Plants can be your ally as long as you use
• Gas and cramps. Use a tea made from
them cautiously. The key to the safe use of
carrot seeds as an antiflatulent; use tea
plants is positive identification whether you
• Antifungal washes. Make a decoction of
CHAPTER 2-3 Proper Body Temperature Body Temperature Dissipate: To lose (as heat or electricity) irre- coverably.
temperatures range from 96ºF to l02ºF. Heat Transfer
Preventing too much heat loss or gain shouldbe a primary concern for survivors. Factors
transferred. They are radiation, conduction,
(excluding illness) are the climatic conditions
convection, evaporation, and respiration. Radiation.Radiation is the primary cause Temperature. As a general rule, exposure
of heat loss. It is defined as the transfer of
heat waves from the body to the environment
considerable decreases in physical efficiency.
and (or) from the environment back to the
In the worst case, incapacitation and death can
body. For example, at a temperature of 50ºF,
50 percent of the body’s total heat loss canoccur through an exposed head and neck. As
Wind. Wind increases the chill effect (fig.
the temperature drops, the situation gets
2-11), and causes dissipation of heat, and
worse. At 5ºF, the loss can be 75 percent
under the same circumstances. Not only canheat be lost from the head, but also from the
Moisture—Precipitation, Ground Moisture, or
other limbs of the body. The hands and feet
Immersion. Water provides an extremely
radiate heat at a exceptional rate due to the
effective way to transfer heat to and from the
large number of capillaries present at the
body. When a person is hot, the whole body
surface of the skin. These three areas of the
may be soaked in a stream or other body of
body must be given particular attention during
water to be cooled. On the other hand, in the
winter, a hot bath can be used to warm the
body. When water is around the body, it tendsto bring the “body” to the temperature of the
Conduction. Conduction is defined as the
liquid. An example is when a hand is burned
another molecule within a solid object.
and then placed in cold water to reduce the
heat. One way to lower body temperature is
gained quickly are deep frostbite and third-
by applying water to clothing and exposing
degree burns, both gained from touching the
the clothed body to the wind. This action
same piece of metal at opposite extremes of
causes the heat to leave the body 25 times
cold and heat. Heat is also lost from the body
faster than when wearing dry clothing. This
in this manner by touching objects in the cold
rapid heat transfer is the reason survivors
with bare hands, by sitting on a cold log, or by
must always guard against getting wet in cold
kneeling on snow to build a shelter.
environments. Consider the result of a bodytotally soaked in water at a temperature of
50ºF and determine how long a person could
is how a “desert water bag” works on the front
liquid fuel at low temperatures. Unlike water
of a jeep while driving in the hot desert. The
which freezes at 32ºF, fuel exposed to the
wind created by the jeep helps to accelerate
evaporation and causes the water in the bag to
temperature as the air. The temperature of the
be cooled. The body also uses this method to
regulate core temperature when it perspires
colder. Spilling the fluid on exposed skin will
cause instant frostbite, not only from the
evaporation method works any time the body
conduction of heat by the cold fluid, but by
perspires regardless of the climate. For this
reason, it is essential that people wear fabrics
evaporation of the liquid as it hits the skin.
that “breathe” in cold climates. If water vaporcannot evaporate through the clothing, it will
Convection.Heat movement by means of
condense, freeze, and reduce the insulation
air or wind to or from an object or body is
always warming a thin layer of air next to theskin by radiation and conduction. The
Respiration.The respiration of air in the
temperature of this layer of air is nearly equal
lungs is also a way of transferring heat. It
to that of the skin. The body stays warm when
this layer of warm air remains close to the
convection, evaporation, and radiation. When
body. However, when this warm layer of air is
breathing, the air inhaled is rarely the same
removed by convection, the body cools down.
temperature as the lungs. Consequently, heat
A major function of clothing is to keep the
is either inhaled or expelled with each breath.
warm layer of air close to the body; however,
A person's breath can be seen in the cold as
by removing or disturbing this warm air layer,
heat is lost to the outside. Because this
wind can reduce body temperature. Therefore,
method is so efficient at transferring heat,
wind can provide beneficial cooling in dry,
hot conditions, or be a hazard in cold, wet
environment. Understanding how heat istransferred and the methods by which that
Evaporation. Evaporation is a process by
transfer can be controlled can help survivors
which liquid changes into vapor, and during
keep the body's core temperature in the 96ºF
this process, heat within the liquid escapes to
the environment. An example of this process
CHAPTER 2-4 Clothing
Everytime people go outside they probably
synthetics, etc. The type of material used has a
significant effect on protection. Potential
important survival-oriented assets—clothing.
Clothing is often taken for granted; people
tend to neglect those things which should be
effectiveness of these different materials in
the most familiar to them. Clothing is an
order to select the best type of clothing for a
important asset to survivors and is the most
important in staying alive, especially if food,
and synthetic fibers. As material is woven
together, a “dead air” space is created between
unobtainable. This is especially true in the
the material fibers. When two or three layers
first stages of an emergency situation because
of material are worn, a layer of air is trapped
survivors must work to satisfy other needs. If
survivors are not properly clothed, they may
another layer of “dead air” or insulation. The
not survive long enough to build a fire or
ability of these different fibers to hold “dead
shelter, to find food, or to be rescued.
air” is responsible for differing insulationvalues. Protection Natural Materials
since they first put on animal skins, feathers,
Natural materials include fur, leather, and
or other coverings. In most parts of the world,
cloth made from plant and animal fibers.
Fur and leather are made into some of the
warmest and most durable clothing. Fur is
people wear clothing made of fur, wool, or
used mainly for coats and coat linings.
closely woven fabrics. They also wear warm
Leather has to be treated to make it soft and
flexible and to prevent it from rotting.
In dry climates, people wear clothing made
of lightweight materials, such as cotton or
contains natural lanolin oils. The long, red
underwear of miners and settlers was made of
materials absorb perspiration and allow air to
wool, and for good reason. Wool is durable
and water resistant, and even when soaked it
colored clothes to reflect the sun's rays. They
Wool clothing is ideal in cold weather, and
may also wear sandals, which are cooler and
a wool shirt or sweater will ward off the chill
more comfortable than shoes. To protect the
head and neck, people wear hats as sunshades.
excellent blankets, hiking socks, hats, and
mittens. If wool irritates your skin, you may
physical injuries caused by vegetation, terrain
be able to wear wool blends or substitutes
features, and animal life which may cause
Cotton is cool, comfortable, and sturdy, but
unlike wool it will not keep you warm when it
Clothing Materials
is wet. Of course, in hot weather that may bean advantage. Underwear and liner socks
often are made of cotton, as are caps, shirts,
ventilation (for example, wearing the garment
moisture quickly and, with heat radiated from
the body, will allow the moisture to pass awayfrom the body. It does not offer muchinsulation when wet. It's used as an inner layer
Layering System
against the skin and as an outer layer withinsulation (for example, wool, Dacron pile,
synthetic batting) sandwiched between. The
the layering system. Choose loose-fitting
cotton protects the insulation and, therefore,
weather you expect to encounter, and be sureyou can put it on and take it off a layer at a
Synthetic Materials
time. For example, on a chilly autumn dayyou might leave home wearing a long-sleeve
Clothing manufacturers are using more and
shirt, long pants, a wool shirt, a sweater,
mittens, and a stocking hat. As you walk,
materials are stronger, more shrink-resistant,
exercise will cause your body to generate
and less expensive than natural materials.
more heat than it needs. Peel off the sweater
and stuff it into your pack. If you’re still too
petroleum in the form of long fibers which
warm, unbutton the wool shirt or slip off the
consist of different lengths, diameters, and
strengths, and sometimes have hollow cores.
These fibers, woven into materials such as
no longer exerting yourself, stay warm by
strong long-lasting clothing, tarps, tents, etc.
enough layers of clothing to stay comfortable.
After the sun goes down, you may want to add
material with air space between the fibers,
an insulted parka and wool trousers or long
providing excellent insulation used inside
Synthetic fibers are generally lighter in
keep cool in the summer by stripping down to
weight than most natural materials and have
shorts, a T-shirt, and a brimmed cap. Despite
the heat, always carry long pants and a long-
sleeve shirt for protection against sunburn,
Versatility in your clothing is the key to a
successful layering system. Several shirts, a
sweater, and a jacket will allow you to adjustyour clothes in many more ways than will a
synthetic fibers. For example, fabrics could bea mixture of cotton and polyester or wool and
Types of Insulation
nylon. For example, a blend of synthetics andcotton makes shirts and shorts that are neat in
Natural. Down is the soft plumage found
between the skin and the contour feathers of
wilderness adventure. A mixture of synthetics
birds. Ducks and geese are good sources for
shrink-resistant shirts, and warm jackets.
(either precipitation or perspiration) quite
waterproof but is also heavy. There are other
coverings on nylon which are waterproof but
somewhat lighter and less durable. However,
most coated nylon has one drawback—it will
equipment. It is one of the warmest natural
not allow for the evaporation of perspiration.
materials available when kept clean and dry. It
Therefore, individuals may have to change the
Metabolic: The complex of chemical and physical
environments; however, if the down gets wet
processes involved in the maintenance of life.
it tends to get lumpy and loses its insulatingvalue.
wind conditions, and the physical makeup of
distribution, with the exception of the forested
regions of the far north. The cattail is a
The body's rate of burning or metabolizing
marshland plant found along lakes, ponds, and
the backwaters of rivers. The fuzz on the tops
individuals. Therefore, some may need more
of the stalks forms dead-air spaces and makes
insulation than others even though food intake
is equal, and consequently the required CLo
value must be increased. Physical activity also
causes an increase in the metabolic rate and
lose their leaves each autumn) also make good
the rate of blood circulation through the body.
insulation. To create dead-air space, leaves
clothing or insulation is needed than when
standing still or sitting. The effect of the wind,
as shown on the wind-chill chart, must be
materials can also be used as insulation when
considered (Chapter 2-3, fig. 2-11). When the
placed between two pieces of material.
combination of temperature and wind dropsthe chill factor to minus l00ºF or lower, the
Synthetic. Synthetic filaments such as
prescribed CLo for protecting the body may
polyesters and acrylics absorb very little water
be inapplicable (over a long period of time)
and dry quickly. Spun synthetic filament is
without relief from the wind. For example,
lighter than an equal thickness of wool and
when the temperature is minus 60ºF, the wind
unlike down does not collapse when wet. It is
is blowing 60 to 70 miles per hour, and the
also an excellent replacement for down in
resultant chill factor exceeds minus 150ºF,
clothing alone is inadequate to sustain life.
insulates well if used in the layer system
The physical build of a person also affects
because of the dead-air space. Survivors must
use caution when using the parachute in cold
endured. For example, a very thin person will
climates. Nylon may become “cold soaked;”
not be able to endure as low a temperature as
that is, the nylon will take on the temperature
one who has a layer of fat below the skin.
Conversely, heavy people will not be able to
known to receive frostbite when placing cold
endure extreme heat as effectively as thinner
In the Air Force clothing inventory, there
Insulation Measurement
are many items which fulfill the need forinsulating the body. They are made of the
The next area to be considered is how well
different fibers previously mentioned, and
these fibers insulate from the heat or cold. The
when worn in layers, provide varying degrees
most scientific way to consider the insulating
value of these fibers is to use an established
average zone temperature chart is a guide in
determining the best combination of clothing
clothing, called a “CLo” factor.
The CLo factor is defined as the amount of
temperature is 70ºF with a light breeze.
sufficient to determine the amount of clothing
required. Such variables as metabolic rate, Clean. Dirt and other materials inside
fabric is determined by the loft (distance
between the inner and outer surfaces) and the
ineffective, wear down and cut the fibers
amount of dead air held within the fabric.
which make up the fabric, and cause holes.
Some examples of the CLo factors and some
impractical; therefore, survivors shouldconcentrate on using proper techniques to
Overheating. Clothing best serves the
purpose of preserving body heat when worn in
layers as follows: absorbent material next to
garments to protect against wind and rain.
Because of the rapid change in temperature,wind, and physical activity, garments should
This total amount of insulation should keep
allow you to get into and get out of quickly
and easily. Ventilation is essential when
temperature. When comparing items one and
airtight layer system results in perspiration
value more than doubles. This is true not only
on the number one item but between all layersof any clothing system. Therefore, one gains
Loose. Garments should be loose fitting to
added protection by using several very thin
layers of insulation rather than two thick
restricting body movement. Additionally, the
layers. The air held between these thin layers
garment should overhang the waist, wrists,
ankles, and neck to reduce body heat loss.
The use of many thin layers also provides
(through removal of desired number of layers)the ability to closely regulate the amount of
Dry. Keep clothing dry since a small
heat retained inside the clothing. The ability
amount of moisture in the insulation fibers
to regulate body temperature helps to alleviate
will cause heat losses up to 25 times faster
the problem of overheating and sweating, and
preserves the effectiveness of the insulation.
The principle of using many thin layers of
dampened clothing. The outer layer should
clothing can also be applied to the "sleeping
protect the inner layers from moisture as well
system" (sleeping bag, liner, and bed). This
as from abrasion of fibers; for example, wool
system uses many layers of synthetic material,
rubbing on logs or rocks, etc. The outer shell
one inside the other, to form the amount of
keeps dirt and other contaminants out of the
clothing. Clothing can be dried in many ways.
this system, a survivor should wear clean and
Fires are often used; however, take care to
dry clothing in layers (the layer system) in
avoid burning the items. The “bare hand” test
cold climates. While discussing the layer
is very effective. Place one hand near the fire
in the approximate place the wet items will be
“COLDER” principle. This acronym is used
and count to three slowly. If this can be done
to aid in remembering how to use and take
without feeling excessive heat, it should be
safe to dry items there. Never leave any itemunattended while it is drying. Leather boots,
C—Keep clothing Clean.
gloves, and mitten shells require extreme care
O—Avoid Overheating.
to prevent shrinkage, stiffening, and cracking.
L—Wear clothing Loose and in Layers.
The best way to dry boots is upright beside
D—Keep clothing Dry.
the fire (not upside down on sticks because
E—Examine clothing for defects or wear.
the moisture does not escape the boot) or
R-Keep clothing Repaired.
simply walk them dry in the milder climates.
The sun and wind can be used to dry clothing
and tucking the loose ends around your pack
with little supervision except for checking
especially contoured to fit your pack.
making sure the article is secure. Freeze-drying is used in subzero temperatures withgreat success. Survivors let water freeze on or
Clothing Wear in Snow
inside the item and then shake, bend, or beat itto cause the ice particles to fall free from the
and Ice Areas
material. Tightly woven materials work betterwith this method than do open fibers.
• Avoid restricting the circulation. Clothing
Examine. All clothing items should be
should not be worn so tight that it restricts
inspected regularly for signs of damage or
body heat and helps prevent frostbite. When wearing more than one pair of
Repair. Eskimos set an excellent example
in the delicate care they provide for their
three or four pairs of socks in a shoe fitted
and feet lose more heat than other parts of the
restriction caused by twisted clothing or a
body and require greater protection. Work
with infrared film shows tremendous heat loss
• Keep the head and ears covered. Survivors
in those areas when not properly clothed.
Survivors in a cold environment are in a real
emergency situation without proper clothing. Rain Gear
perspiration by opening clothing at theneck and wrists and loosening it at the
No matter how clear the skies as you pack
waist. If the body is still warm, comfort
for a journey, prepare for nasty weather. That
can be obtained by taking off outer layers
raincoat, a pack cover, and perhaps rain pants
work stops, the individual should put the
and gaiters. Choose rainwear that fits loosely
clothing on again to prevent chilling.
enough to give you freedom of movement and
• If boots are big enough, use dry grass,
to allow perspiration to evaporate without
condensing on the inside of the fabric.
insulation around the feet. Footgear can be
both survivors and their gear. In emergencies,
ponchos can serve as temporary shelters. They
can, however, blow around in a strong wind,and thus may not give full protection in severe
Backpacker rainsuits are almost invincible.
Many feature hoods and large cargo pockets.
with leather tops are best for wet weather.
Rainpants and rain chaps will protect your
Mukluks should not be worn in wet weather.
legs from wind, rain, and heavy dew, while
The vapor-barrier rubber boots can be worn
gaiters will keep pebbles, water, mud, and
extremely low temperatures. The air release
valve should be closed at ground level. These
valves are designed to release pressure when
time, make sure your gear stays dry by taking
airborne. Air should not be blown into the
along a pack cover. You can make a simple
one by cutting a slit in a plastic garbage bag
Clothing should be kept as dry as possible.
Snow must be brushed from clothing before
radiant heat rising from the rest of the body
entering a shelter or going near a fire. The
and to recycle it to keep the neck, head, and
face warm. (fig. 2-17). The individual's ability
garments before warming them and dry them
to tolerate cold should dictate the size of the
on a rack near a fire. Socks should be dried
front opening of the hood. The "tunnel” of a
parka hood is usually lined with fur of some
kind to act as a protecting device for the face.
mittens should be worn inside a waterproof
This same fur also helps to protect the hood
shell (fig. 2-15). If survivors have to expose
from the moisture expelled during breathing.
their hands, they should warm them inside
The closed tunnel holds heat close to the face
longer; the open one allows the heat to escape
more freely. As the frost settles on the hair of
survivor should wear sun or snow goggles or
the fur, it should be shaken from time to time
improvise a shield with a small horizontal slit
Sleeping systems (sleeping bag, liner, and
In strong wind or extreme cold, as a last
bed) are the transition “clothing” used
resort, a survivor should wrap up in parachute
between normal daytime activities and sleep
material, if available, and get into some type
of shelter or behind a windbreak. Extreme
The insulating material in the sleeping bag
care should be taken with hard materials, such
as synthetics, as they may become cold soaked
feathers. (Feathers and down lining require
extra protection from moisture). However, the
covering is nylon. Survivors must realize that
spare clothing loosely around and under the
and must be fluffed before use to restore
warm. Wet clothes should never be worn into
insulation value. Clean and dry socks, mittens,
the sleeping bag. The moisture destroys the
and other clothing can be used to provide
If survivors fall into water, they should roll
in dry snow to blot up moisture, brush off thesnow, and roll again until most of the water is
Footwear
absorbed. They should not remove footwearuntil they are in a shelter or beside a fire.
Footgear is critical in a survival situation
protection when used as an inner layer. When
survivors should be cautioned that moisture
essential both before and during a survival
from the breath will condense on the surface
and cause the insulating value to decrease.
The use of a wool scarf wrapped around the
Ensure footgear is properly "broken-in"
mouth and nose is an excellent way to prevent
cold injury, but it needs to be de-iced on a
“Treat” footgear to ensure water-repellence
regular basis to prevent freezing flesh adjacent
(follow manufacturer's recommendations).
to it. An extra shell is generally worn over the
Keep leather boots as dry as possible.
warming layers to protect them and to act as awindbreak.
hood. These items are most effective when
used with a covering for the face in extreme
mukluks are made of cotton duck with rubber-
cold. The pile cap is extremely warm where it
cleated soles and heels (fig. 2-19). They have
is insulated, but it offers little protection for
slide fasteners from instep to collar, laces at
instep and collar, and are 18 inches high. Theyare used by flying and ground personnel
operating under dry, cold conditions intemperatures below + 15ºF Survivors shouldchange liners daily when possible. Breaking in Leather Boots Leather Boots
boots usually are stiff. They must be broken in
When you’re hiking, your feet and ankles
before you wear them on an extended journey
take a tremendous pounding. Quality hiking
or you’re in for a lot of blisters.
First, treat your boots with the dressing
protection they need to withstand the jarring
of each step. The best leather boots are made
thoroughly into the leather with a rag or your
of top-grain leather, which breathes, allowing
hand. This will protect the boots and help
them repel water. You may also want to guard
the boot seams against moisture and abrasionby applying a commercial seam sealer.
traction, though smoother soles are usually
short walks until they have loosened.
adequate, frequently lighter, and often less
Gradually extend the length of the walks on
damaging to trails. Since a pound of weight
which you wear them, and soon they’ll feel
on your feet is equal to 5 pounds on your
back, stick with boots that weigh no morethan 3 to 5 pounds a pair for trail wear. Caring for Boots
Mountaineering boots are heavier and morerigid, and appropriate only for the specialized
clean them after every outing. When boots aremuddy, use a stiff brush to remove the mud,
Selecting Footwear
then apply more dressing to the leather. If theybecome wet, dry them at room temperature.
When you go into a store to try on boots,
Never expose them to more heat than you can
wear the socks in which you plan to wear on
tolerate on the back of your hand. Synthetics
your journey. Unlace a boot, slip in your foot,
may melt, and leather can become hardened
and kick your toes forward. If the boot is the
right length, you should be able to slide two
they’ll give you years of good service.
fingers between your heel and the back of theboot. Making Your Own Footwear
pocket, and with the boot snugly laced, walk
Moose Hock Shoe.The hock skin of a
around the shop, go up and down some stairs,
moose or caribou will provide a suitable pair
and do a few deep knee bends. You want to be
of shoes (fig. 2-20). Cut skin around leg at A
sure your heel isn’t sliding up and down
and B. Separate from the leg and pull it overthe hoof. Shape and sew up small end C. Slit
inside the boot, and that the widest part of
skin from A to B; bore holes on each side of
your foot isn’t swimming around or being
cut for lacing; turn inside out, and lace with
squeezed. After you’ve tried out one pair, run
rawhide, suspension line, or other suitable
the same tests on several other models, taking
plenty of time to get a real feel for the fit. Inspect each boot for quality workmanship. Grass Insoles.Used extensively by northern
natives to construct inner soles. Grass is a
good insulator and will collect moisture from
undamaged, if they don’t fit. That way you
following procedure to prepare grass for use
several days inside the house. If they still feel
as inner soles: Grasp a sheaf of tall grass,
good, you’ve probably got a pair that’s right
about one-half inch in diameter, with both
hands. Rotate the hands in opposite directions.
The grass will break up or "fluff" into a soft
Hoops of wire fastened on the inside will
mass. Form this fluff into oblong shapes and
make the net stand out from the face and at
spread it evenly throughout the shoes. The
the same time allow it to be packed flat. The
inner soles should be about an inch thick.
larger they are, the better the ventilation. But
Remove these inner soles at night and make
very large nets will not be as effective in
wooded country where they may becomesnagged on brush. Hudson Bay Duffel.A triangular piece of
Gloves are hot, but are a necessity where
material used as a foot covering. To improvise
flies are found in swamps. Kid gloves with a
this foot covering, a survivor can use the
6-inch gauntlet closing the gap at the wrist
and ending with an elastic band halfway to the
1. Cut two to four layers of parachute cloth
elbow are best. For fine work, kid gloves with
the fingers cut off are good. Cotton/Nomex
2. Fold this square to form a triangle.
work gloves are better than no protection at
3. Place the foot on this triangle with the
all, but mosquitoes will bite through them.
Treating the gloves with insect repellent will
4. Fold the front cover up over the toes.
help. Smoky clothing may also help to keep
5. Fold the side corners, one at a time, over
the instep. This completes the foot wrap.
mosquitoes do not often bite through twolayers of cloth; therefore, a lightweight
Gaiters.Made from parachute cloth,
undershirt and long underwear will help. To
webbing, or canvas. Gaiters help keep sand
protect ankles, blouse the bottoms of trousers
and snow out of shoes and protect the legs
around boots, or wear some type of leggings
from bites and scratches (fig. 2-22).
If the head net is lost or none is available,
Double Socks.Cushion padding, feathers,
make the best of a bad situation by wearing
dry grass, or fur stuffed between layers of
sunglasses with improvised screened sides,
plugging ears lightly with cotton, and tying a
around the feet and tie above the ankles. A
handkerchief around the neck. Treat clothing
improvised footwear may be more desirableand more efficient than any single type (fig. 2-23). Warm-Weather Cold-Weather Clothing List Clothing List Clothing in the Summer Arctic
In the summer arctic, there are clouds of
mosquitoes and black flies so thick a person
___Long pants(wool military surplus pants are fine)
can scarcely see through them. Survivors can
protect themselves by wearing proper clothing
to ensure no bare skin is exposed. A good
Head nets must stand out from the face so
they won't touch the skin. Issued head nets are
either black or green. If one needs to be
improvised they can be sewn to the brim of
the hat or can be attached with an elastic band
that fits around the crown. Black is the best
color, as it can be seen through more easily
than green or white. A heavy tape encasing adrawstring should be attached to the bottomof the head net for tying snugly at the collar. Clothing at Sea
abandoning an aircraft) would be dangerousor could prove fatal. The suit provides
In cold oceans, survivors must try to stay
dry and keep warm. If wet, they should use a
against the chill of the ocean. The result of
wind screen to decrease the cooling effects of
exposure in the water is illustrated in figures
out, and replace outer garments or change into
dry clothing. Hats, socks, and gloves should
assembly worn, the cold sensitiveness of the
also be dried. If any survivors are dry, they
person, and survival procedures used.
should share extra clothes with those who arewet. Wet personnel should be given the most
Quick-Donning Antiexposure Flying
sheltered positions in the raft. Let them warm
Coverall. Some antiexposure coveralls are
their hands and feet against those who are dry.
designed for quick donning (approximately 1
Survivors should put on any extra clothing
ditching the aircraft, the coverall protects the
around their shoulders and over their heads.
cold water, and from exposure to wind, spray,
Clothes should be loose and comfortable.
Also, survivors should attempt to keep the
floor of the raft dry. For insulation, covering
from chloroprene-coated nylon cloth. It has
the floor with any available material will help.
Survivors should huddle together on the floor
adjustable waist belt, and attached boots with
of the raft and spread extra tarpaulin, sail, or
adjustable ankle straps. One pair of insulated,
parachute material over the group. If in a 20-or 25-man raft, canopy sides can be lowered.
adjustable wrist strap mittens, each with a
strap attached to a pocket, is provided. A
circulation may be helpful. Survivors should
hood, also attached with a strap, is in the left
exercise fingers, toes, shoulders, and buttock
pocket. A carrying case with instructions and
muscles. Mild exercise will help keep the
possibly prevent medical problems. Survivors
wear it over regular clothing. It is large
periodically raise feet slightly and hold them
enough to wear over the usual flight gear. The
gloves and hood are stowed in the pockets of
frostbite. Shivering is the body's way of
quickly generating heat and is considered
normal. However, persistent shivering may
when donning the coverall to prevent damage
lead to uncontrollable muscle spasms. They
by snagging, tearing, or puncturing it on
projecting objects. After donning the coverall,
water is available, additional rations should be
the waist band and boot ankle straps should be
given to those suffering from exposure to
adjusted to take up fullness. If possible,
survivors should stoop while pulling the neck
frequently rather than one large meal.
seal to expel air trapped in the suit. Whenjumping into the water, they should leap feet
Antiexposure Garments
first with hands and arms close to sides orbrought together above the head (fig. 2-25). Assemblies. The antiexposure assemblies,
Note there is a constant wear exposure suit
both quick donning and constant wear, are
designed for personnel participating in over-
overwater flights where the water temperature
water flights where unprotected or prolonged
exposure to the climatic conditions of cold airand/or cold water (as a result of ditching or
Warm Oceans
edged grasses can cut clothing to shreds. Survivors should dry clothing before nightfall.
If an extra change of clothing is available,
effort should be made to keep it clean and dry.
problems. A survivor should keep the bodycovered as much as possible to avoid sunburn. A sunshade can be improvised out of any
Dry Climates
materials available or the canopy providedwith the raft may be used. If the heat becomes
In the dry climates of the world, clothing
too intense, survivors may dampen clothing
will be needed for protection against sunburn,
with sea water to promote evaporation and
heat, sand, and insects. Survivors should not
cooling. The use of sunburn preventive cream
discard any clothing. They should keep their
or a Chapstick is advisable. Remember, the
head and body covered and blouse the legs of
body must be kept covered completely.
pants over the tops of footwear during the
Exposure to the Sun increases thirst, wastes
day. Survivors should not roll up sleeves, but
keep them rolled down and loose at the cuff to
content, and causes serious burns. Survivors
should roll down their sleeves, pull up their
socks, close their collars, wear a hat or
people who live in the hot dry areas of the
improvised headgear, use a piece of cloth as a
world usually wear heavy white flowing robes
shield for the back of the neck, and wear
bodies. The only areas open to the Sun are theface and the eyes. This produces an area of
Tropical Climates
higher humidity between the body and theclothing, which helps keep them cooler and
In tropical areas, the body should be kept
conserves their perspiration (fig. 2-26). The
white clothing also reflects the sunlight.
to cover the back of the neck and protect it
survivors should roll down their sleeves, wear
from the Sun. A T-shirt makes an excellent
gloves, and blouse the legs of their pants or tie
neck drape, with the extra material used as
them over their boot tops. Improvised puttees
(gaiters) can be made from parachute material
available, survivors can make headpieces like
or any available fabric. This will protect legs
those worn by the Arabs, as shown in figure
2-26. During dust storms, they should wear a
covering for the mouth and nose; parachute
survivors cooler, especially when subjected to
example of this is the “Russian Sock.”
against insects. The most active time for
Parachute material can be used to improvise
these socks. The parachute material is cut into
repellent should be used at these times.
strips approximately 2 feet long and 4 inches
fashion around the feet and ankles. Socks
improvised head covering for protection from
made in this fashion will provide comfort and
sunburn and/or dust. They should also move
carefully through tall grass, as some sharp-
CHAPTER 2-5 Shelters
A shelter can protect your from the Sun,
insects, wind, rain, snow, and hot or cold
Shelter: Is anything that protects a survivor from
temperatures. It can give you a feeling of well-
the environmental hazards.
being. It can help you maintain your will tosurvive.
materials in unfavorable conditions. They
take priority over your need for food and
must constantly be thinking of ways to satisfy
their needs for protection from environmental
cause excessive fatigue and weakness(exhaustion). An exhausted person may
develop a “passive” outlook, thereby losingthe will to survive.
Weather conditions are a key consideration
The most common error in making a shelter
when selecting a shelter site. Failure to
is to make it too large. A shelter must be large
consider the weather could have disastrous
enough to protect you. It must also be small
results. Some major weather factors which can
enough to contain your body heat especially in
influence the survivor's choice of shelter type
and site selection are temperature, wind, and
The information in this chapter describes
how the environment influences shelter siteselection and factors which survivors must
Temperature. Temperatures can vary
considerably within a given area. Setting up a
shelter. The techniques and procedures for
campsite in low areas such as a valley in cold
constructing shelters for various types of
regions can expose survivors to low night
temperatures and wind-chill factors. Coldertemperatures are found along valley floorswhich are sometimes referred to as “cold air
Shelter Considerations
sumps.” It may be advantageous to set upcampsites to take advantage of the Sun.
The location and type of shelter built by
Survivors could place their shelters in open
survivors vary with each survival situation.
warmth and in shaded areas for protection
picking a site. Survivors should consider the
from the Sun during periods of hotter weather.
In some areas a compromise may have to be
adequate camp, weather conditions, life forms
(human, plant, and animal), terrain, and time
daytime temperatures can be very high while
of day. Every effort should be made to use as
low temperatures at night can turn water to
ice. Protection from both heat and cold are
maximum protection from the environment.
needed in these areas. Shelter type andlocation should be chosen to provide
protection from the existing temperatureconditions.
Late afternoon is not the best time to look
for a site which will meet the day's shelter
Wind. Wind can be either an advantage or a
requirements. If survivors wait until the last
disadvantage depending upon the temperature
of the area and the velocity of the wind. During the summer or on warm days,
Scree and Talus: An accumulation of loose stones
breezes and protection the wind provides from
or rocky debris lying on a slope or at the back of a
insects by locating their camps on knolls or
hill or cliff.
spots of land. Conversely, wind can becomean annoyance or even a hazard as blowingsand, dust, or snow can cause skin and eye
Terrain hazards may not be as apparent as
weather and animal life hazards, but they can
months, survivors should seek shelter sites
which are protected from the effects of wind-
recognized by either a clear path or a path ofsecondary vegetation, such as 1- to 15-foot tall
Precipitation. The many forms of
vegetation or other new growth which extends
precipitation (rain, sleet, hail, or snow) can
also present problems for survivors. Shelter
mountain. Survivors should not choose shelter
sites should be out of major drainages and
sites at the bottom of steep slopes which may
other low areas to provide protection from
be prone to slides. Likewise, there is a danger
flash floods or mud slides resulting from
in camping at the bottom of steep scree or
heavy rains. Snow can also be a great danger if
talus slopes. Additionally, rock overhang
shelters are placed in potential avalanche
must be checked for safety before using it as a
Life Forms Location
All life forms (plant and animal) must be
considered when selecting the campsite and
realize that shelter is a high priority, start
the type of shelter that will be used. For a
looking for shelter as soon as possible. As you
shelter to be adequate, certain factors must be
do so, remember what you will need at the
considered, especially if extended survival is
Insect life can cause personal discomfort,
1. It must be near water, food, fuel, and a
disease, and injury. By locating shelters on
knolls, ridges, or any other area that has abreeze or steady wind, survivors can reduce
2. The area must be safe, providing natural
the number of flying insects in their area.
protection from environmental hazards.
Staying away from standing water sources willhelp to avoid mosquitoes, bees, wasps, and
3. Materials must be available to construct
hornets. Ants can be a major problem; some
species will forcefully defend their territorieswith painful stings or bites, or release
In some cases, the “shelter” may already be
present. Survivors seriously limit themselves
if they assume shelters must be a constructed
problem, especially if the camp is set up near
framework having predetermined dimensions
and a cover of parachute material or a signal
Dead trees that are standing, and trees with
paulin. More appropriately, survivors should
dead branches should be avoided. Wind may
consider using sheltered places already in
cause them to fall, causing injuries or death.
existence in the immediate area. This does not
rule out shelters with a constructed framework
and parachute or other manufactured material
covering; it simply enlarges the scope of whatcan be used as a survival shelter.
fire is to be built must have a ventilation
enough and level enough for the survivor to lie
system which will provide fresh air and allow
smoke and carbon monoxide to escape. Evenif a fire does not produce visible smoke (such
as heat tabs), the shelter must still be vented.
If a fire is to be placed outside the shelter, the
satisfactory shelter provides physical and
opening of the shelter should be placed 90
mental well-being for sound rest. Plenty of
degrees to the prevailing wind. This will
rest is very important if survivors are to make
reduce the chances of sparks and smoke being
sound decisions. Their need for rest becomes
blown into the shelter if the wind should
more critical as time passes and rescue or
reverse direction in the morning and evening.
return is delayed. Before actually constructing
This frequently occurs in mountainous areas.
specific purpose of the shelter. The following
approximately 3 feet. If an aircrew member’s
factors influence the type of shelter to be built.
situation, one place where it would not be wiseto build a fire is near the aircraft wreckage,
especially if it is being used as a shelter. The
possibility of igniting spilled lubricants or
fuels is great. Survivors may decide instead to
use materials from the aircraft to add to a
• Available materials nearby (manufactured
shelter located a safe distance from the crash
Types of Shelters
If possible, survivors should try to find a
shelter which needs little work to be adequate.
Using what is already there, so that complete
mind the type of shelter (protection) you need.
construction of a shelter is not necessary,
saves time and energy. For example, rockoverhangs, caves, large cracks, fallen logs,
modified to provide satisfactory shelter.
• If the shelter will adequately protect you
blocks to finish off an existing tree well
from the elements (Sun, wind, rain, snow).
shelter, increasing the insulation of the shelter
by using vegetation or parachute material, or
• If you have the tools to build it. If not, can
building a reflector fire in front of a rock
overhang or cave. Survivors must consider the
amount of energy required to build the shelter.
It is not really wise to spend a great deal of
time and energy in constructing a shelter ifnature has provided a natural shelter nearby
which will satisfy the survivor's needs. See
know how to make various types of shelters
and what materials you need to make them. Immediate Action Shelters
important only if there is either a lack ofmaterial on hand or if it is cold. Otherwise, the
The first type of shelter that survivors may
consider using, or the first type they may be
comfortable yet not so large as to cause an
forced to use, is an immediate action shelter.
An immediate action shelter is one which can
naturally occurring or otherwise, in which a
be erected quickly with minimum effort; for
example, raft, aircraft parts, parachutes,
paulin, and plastic bag. Natural formations can
• Simple shade shelter; these are useful in dry
immediately, to include overhanging ledges,
fallen logs, caves, and tree wells (fig. 2-28). It
isn't necessary to be concerned with exact
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